AMF support plants in combating cold stress and eventually improve plant development Gamalero et al. Moreover, AMF also can retain moisture in the host plant Zhu et al. For example, during cold stress, AMF-inoculated plants showed an enhanced water conservation capacity as well as its use efficiency Zhu et al. Symbiotic AMF relationship improves water and plant relationships and increases gas exchange potential and osmotic adjustment Zhu et al.
AMF improve the synthesis of chlorophyll leading to a significant improvement in the concentrations of various metabolites in plants subjected to cold stress conditions Zhu et al. The role of AMF during cold stress has also been reported to alter protein content in tomato and other vegetables Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, b.
It is widely accepted that AMF could alleviate various stresses or combination of stresses that include, drought, salinity, temperature, nutrients, and heavy metals. For example, exposure of plants to a combination of drought and salinity causes an enhanced production of reactive oxygen species, which can be highly injurious to plants Bauddh and Singh, Very rare research reports are available in the literature demonstrating the role of AMF in mitigation of combined effects of two or more stresses.
Similarities among the tolerance mechanisms may occur in response to AMF-mediated combined stress adaptations. It is proposed that AMF-mediated alterations in phytohormone profile, mineral uptake and assimilation, accumulation of compatible osmolytes and secondary metabolites, and up-regulation of antioxidant system can be the common mechanisms induced during different stresses.
However, specific mechanisms like compartmentation and sequestration of toxic ions, production of phytochelatins, and protein expression can be specific and exhibit a significant change with stress type and the AMF species involved.
Changes in root characteristics like hydraulic conductivities can improve the osmotic stress tolerance to considerable levels Evelin et al. The said characteristics of AMF may elevate nutraceutical quality of crops and could be of considerable agronomic importance for production and management of different potential crops.
However, extensive studies are required to unravel the role of AMF in counteracting the effects of combined stresses. A few research reports have already documented the beneficial role of AMF in improving plant growth under stressful environments. Therefore, in this review, the existing information related to the role of AMF has been combined in a coherent way for understanding of AMF symbiotic relationship with a variety of plants under stress environments.
Previously, the AMF have been mainly discussed as beneficial entities for nutrient uptake from soil; however, recently, it has been clearly depicted that plants inoculated with AMF can effectively combat various environmental cues, like salinity, drought, nutrient stress, alkali stress, cold stress, and extreme temperatures, and thus help increase per hectare yield of a large number of crops and vegetables.
Encouragement of AMF usage is of immense importance for modern global agricultural systems for their consistent sustainability. Undoubtedly, exploitation of AMF for agricultural improvement can significantly reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers and other chemicals, thereby promoting the bio-healthy agriculture.
AMF-mediated growth and productivity enhancement in crop plants can be beneficial to overcome the consumption requirement of increasing population across the globe. In addition, environment-friendly technologies shall be highly encouraged due to their widespread use. The primary focus of future research should be on the identification of genes and gene products controlling the AMF mediated growth and development regulation under stressful cues.
Identification of both host as well as AMF specific protein factors regulating symbiotic association and the major cellular and metabolic pathways under different environmental stresses can be hot areas for future research in this field.
Understanding the AMF induced modulations in the tolerance mechanisms and the crosstalk triggered to regulate plant performance can help improve crop productivity. Taken together, AMF must be explored at all levels to further investigate their role in nature as a bio-fertilizer for sustainable agricultural production.
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When organic matter compost is added to improve a soil, mycorrhizae are important in making its nutrients available. The residual organic matter and the hyphae improve the structure of the soil. Recent research indicates that the fungi even help break down rock, increasing availability of the essential nutrients within, such as potassium, calcium, zinc and magnesium.
Disease resistance Mycorrhizae also help the plant resist infection by other fungi and even bacteria. This may be because the plant, being better nourished, is healthier and has better resistance to the invader. It may also be that the large physical presence of one fungus impedes infection by others.
Another possibility is that either the plant or the fungus produces compounds that prevent infection by pathogens. Interaction with other soil microbes — a cycle of benefit. Desert plants interact with other organisms in the soil. Many of these microorganisms fertilize plants by "fixing" nitrogen, which is then available for plant growth.
When mycorrhizae are present, the number and vitality of these nitrogen fixers increase. Many fungi will form associations with plants, and many plants will form mycorrhizal associations. These interactions appear to be plant- and fungus-specific.
Not all mycorrhizae-forming fungi will work with all desert plants. There are research reports which show that association with the "wrong" fungus actually decreases the health and vigor of the plant. Because there is a requirement for specific plant-fungus association, mycorrhizae can be important in reestablishing native species in areas where they have been lost.
Mycorrhizal fungi are available for sale from several sources. Introducing mycorrhizal fungal spores inoculation is sometimes suggested to improve yields and plant vigor, particularly for container and landscape ornamentals. Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi may not be a benefit unless it is specific to the plant, because there is a requirement for a specific fungus-plant interaction for optimum benefit.
It would also be counterproductive to inoculate with a fungus that could strongly benefit a weedy species. Many desert soils already have mycorrhizal fungi present, at least in small amounts. Even without inoculation, spores can be found in many desert locations. If host plants are grown where there are spores of these fungi, then both thrive.
The mycorrhizal fungi may continue to survive even after the original host is no longer present. The hyphae enter the root and create swellings vesicles for nutrient storage structures where nutrients are transferred between fungus and plant arbuscules.
The names of these two structures are combined into "vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae" VAM , the term for the most common type of mycorrhizal association. Mycorrhizae are able to uptake water, inorganic phosphorus, mineral or organic nitrogen, and amino acids through specialized transporters located on their membrane 3. Once the water and nutrients are acquired, they can then be transferred to the host, who in return supplies carbon. Since mycorrhizal relationships can help to increase plant growth and therefore yield, they can be beneficial in agricultural fields.
An increase in yield for farmers also means an increase in income. This symbiotic relationship in agricultural fields would increase crop production and therefore increase food output. The mycorrhizal fungi also aids in soil aggregation, which can increase water filtration and gas exchange within the soil 7. With an increase in gas exchange, the mycorrhizal fungi can aid in the aeration of agricultural fields. This, along with the other benefits of mycorrhizae, can increase the crop yield. This symbiotic relationship can also be helpful in restoration areas.
Since the fungus allows certain plants to be greater competitors and can allow them to prosper in areas low in nutrients and water, they would be very useful in restoration efforts. Not only could this partnership increase a plant's ability to colonize an area, they would also have a greater capacity to out compete [ invasive species ].
Since mycorrhizae can form beneficial relationships with plants, many experiments have been performed to research the extent of these advantages. This experiment aimed at discovering the effect of salinity on corn with mycorrhizal relationships. The effect of salinity was tested because of its ability to reduce growth and yield of crops. On the other hand, arbuscular mycorrhizae endomycorrhizae is known for its ability to increase the growth and yields of plants. In order to conduct this experiment, corn was planted in soil with five different salinity levels for a total of fifty-five days.
Half the corn in each different salinity level had a mycorrhizal partnership while the other half of the corn did not. After the days were up, the plants were then removed and their root biomass, root morphology, and root activity. The compiled data showed that the corn associated with the arbuscular mycorrhizae had a larger root biomass, root morphology, and root activity in all of the salinity levels compared with the corn without the symbiotic association.
All in all, this research showed that the corn with the arbuscular mycorrhizae was able to alleviate some of the stress caused by high salinity levels.
In this experiment, the association between Desmoncus orthacanthos and arbuscular mycorrhizae was tested. Desmoncus orthacanthos is known for its large roots that do not branch and do not have many hairs.
Due to this, research was done to test the ability of the mycorrhizae to increase phosphorus uptake and to increase the growth of the plant seedlings. Seedlings were planted in soil with three different levels of phosphorus for a total of one hundred and sixty days. Half of the seedlings had a partnership with the arbuscular mycorrhizae while the other half did not have an association with this fungus.
After the experiment was over, the growth of each seedling was measured. Overall, the concentration of phosphorus in the seedlings increased with the mycorrhizae association as well as with the increased phosphorus in the soil. This experiment revealed that it is very beneficial for Desmoncus orthacanthos seedlings to have a partnership with arbuscular mycorrhizae especially when they are in soil with low levels of phosphorus.
This experiment tested the effect of low temperatures on the growth of corn. Low temperatures are an abiotic factor that can greatly reduce and limit the growth of plants. With this said, this experiment tested the ability of arbuscular mycorrhizae on the water uptake, growth, and chlorophyll concentration in corn. In order to carry out this research, corn with and without arbuscular mycorrhizae associations were planted in soil for seven weeks in a temperature of twenty-five degrees Celsius.
Next, the plants were introduced to temperatures of five degrees Celsius, fifteen degrees Celsius, and twenty-five degrees Celsius for a week.
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